Kohut believed there could be unhealthy expressions of the grandiose self ‘through parental ‘rejection and overindulgence’
According to Reich, “[n]arcissists’ opinions of others also dramatically shift in cycles because others are used as tools to build up their egos. In grandiose times, others are seen as downward comparison targets but in despairing times, others are seen as inspirational upward comparison targets” (A Brief History of Narcissism, University of Michigan Library).
In turn, “[Heinz] Kohut wrote extensively on narcissism and, like Freud, he too believed narcissism was a healthy and normal part of development and ‘neither pathological nor obnoxious.’
However, unlike Freud, he believed primary narcissism was a state of undifferentiated union with the mother rather than a state of total self-absorption…” (ibid.).
“Kohut posited the two trajectories of the idealized parent and the grandiose self are initially created to cope when ‘the balance of primary narcissism is disturbed…’”
He believed there could be unhealthy expressions of the grandiose self “through parental ‘rejection and overindulgence’ [or] if the grandiose self has not evolved into a realistic sense of self-worth…” (ibid.).
In 1975, Otto Kernberg “wrote extensively on narcissistic disorders, believing that they were a subtype of borderline personality disorders. In his definition of narcissism, he offered specific behaviors that can be used to classify someone as having a pathological narcissistic personality” (ibid.).
Interestingly, Kernberg viewed narcissists as having “little empathy for the feelings of others, they obtain very little enjoyment from life other than from the tributes they receive from others or from their own grandiose fantasies, and they feel restless and bored when external glitter wears off and no new sources feed their self-regard” (ibid.).
“They envy others, tend to idealize some people from whom they expect narcissistic supplies and to depreciate and treat with contempt those from whom they do not expect anything (often their former idols). In general, their relationships with other people are clearly exploitative and sometimes parasitic…” (ibid.).
To Kernberg, “the pathological narcissist has fused self as it is with the self as it wants to be and the ideal other. To pathological narcissists anyone outside of this real self / ideal self / ideal object fusion is seen as ‘basically dishonest and unreliable’ [and] [t]heir greatest fear is being dependent on other people…” (ibid.).
He “speculated there could be genetic tendencies toward aggressiveness or a low tolerance for anxiety.
He also thought it was at least partly environmental, caused by ‘chronically cold parental figures…’ [and] [n]arcissists also ‘often occupy a pivotal point in their family structure, such as being the only child, or the only ‘brilliant’ child, or the one who is supposed to fulfill the family aspirations’” (ibid.).
“At around the same time as Kernberg was actively writing on narcissism from a clinical perspective, historian and cultural critic Christopher Lasch published his book Culture of Narcissism, borrowing ideas from the clinical literature. In his book he tries to offer a historical analysis of what he saw as the increasing prevalence of narcissism in society” (ibid.).
“Research on narcissism began to accelerate in the 1980s…[t]he spike in research in the 1980s occurred after narcissism was included as a personality disorder in the third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-III)…” “Studies also indicate that Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) is more frequently found among people with higher education or special professional groups…” (ibid.).
In 1979, “Raskin & Hall developed the Narcissistic Personality Inventory based on the DSM-III criteria for Narcissistic Personality Disorder, and later revised it to its current 40-item forced choice version.
This is the most widely used scale in narcissism research…” (ibid.).
In 1999, Campbell opined that “[i]n romantic relationships narcissists are attracted to partners who are high in status and full of admiration for them, and tend not to pursue relationships in order to fulfill needs for intimacy or closeness.
People are attracted to them at first and in short durations… however after a few interactions this attraction is likely to fade when people notice how self-centered they are” (ibid.).
Further studies in the new millennium showed that relationships with “[n]arcissists… can initially be exciting but that they are lacking in intimacy. It follows then that they are likely to be game-players in romantic relationships and constantly on the lookout for someone better, even when involved in serious committed relationships” (ibid.).
“When someone does something that hurts or offends them, narcissists are quite unforgiving of offenses as compared to others.” (ibid.).